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One potential source of stress is crowding. Environmental psychologists distinguish between the physical measurement of density and the psychological feeling of crowding. Density is defined as the physical area available to the given number of individuals present, while crowding is the psychological feeling of not having enough space available. Paulus (1980) concluded that while high density (a large number of individuals per unit of space) is usually necessary for crowding, it does not always produce the negative feeling of crowding. For example, at an enjoyable party or an exciting football game, we might have high density but not perceive being crowded. On the other hand, if we are on a deserted beach and someone else comes within view, we might feel crowded, even though the density is not high. Crowding is a psychological phenomenon.
Most people think of crowding as a negative situation. It is usually assumed (but often unproven) that crowding automatically leads to aggression, violence, and crime. A number of studies have reported positive correlations between high density and negative social conditions, such as crime. For example, Schmitt (1966) found that as the density of the population in Honolulu increased, the crime rate, death rate, and mental-disorder rate also increased. But Freedman (1975) argued that when social factors such as economic level, educational level, and ethnicity are taken into account, the relationship between crowding and crime disappears. Thus, it seems that the issue of crowding is more complex than we first believed it to be. In research studies, usually it is found that performance decreases as density increases. But we feel less crowded with friends than with strangers. It is likely that someone with a large personal space need would feel crowded sooner than someone with a small personal space need. Sex differences have been reported by Freedman and his colleagues, with males usually experiencing more stress in high-density situations. The importance of cognitive factors in crowding was demonstrated in a 1984 experiment by Worchel and Brown. The experimenters showed either an arousing film (which was humorous, aggressive, or sexual in content) or a nonarousing film to college students who were seated inappropriately close to one another. Subjects who were watching an arousing film attributed their arousal feelings to the film and thus did not experience crowding. However, subjects who were watching the nonarousing film could not attribute their arousal (actually caused by the inappropriately close seating arrangement) to the film, and so felt crowded. Crowding, therefore, was dependent upon the perception of the source of the arousal. In his 1975 book Crowding and Behavior, Jonathan Freedman argued that crowding is neither good nor bad. Instead, in his density-intensity theory of crowding he suggests that as density increases, the intensity of our moods and behavior increases. Thus, if we expect to have a good time at a party and the party is crowded, we'll really enjoy ourselves. But if we expect to have a bad time, crowding makes us feel miserable. Baum and colleagues (1981) argued that when people are aware of the density level beforehand they will feel less crowded than those who do not know what to expect. In an urban setting, if crime is a dominant behavior, crowding will increase the crime level. But if positive social behaviors predominate, crowding will produce beneficial effects. Freedman argues that therefore it is important to make sure that positive social environments exist in high-density areas. |
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