*S08
STUDY AND REVIEW ACTIVITIES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES AND CHAPTER SUMMARY REVIEW
Learning Objectives
1. Define cognition and identify the topics in cognitive psychology.
2. Define language and describe its structure (grammar).
3. Outline how language develops in infants and children.
4. Compare the two major theories of language development.
5. Identify four theories of problem solving.
6. Outline effective problem-solving strategies and identify three variables that can interfere with solving problems.
7. Define creativity.
8. Define the concept of intelligence.
9. Outline the major theories of intelligence.
10. Identify the characteristics of tests.
11. Describe the development of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale.
12. Describe the Wechsler Intelligence Scales.
13. Outline the genetic influences on intelligence.
14. Outline the environmental influences on intelligence.
15. List the levels of mental retardation and identify its major causes.
16. Describe intellectually gifted people.
Chapter Summary
1. Cognition involves the mental processes used in perception, memory, communication, thinking, and understanding. Cognitive psychology includes the study of perception, memory, language, thought, problem solving, and intelligence.
2. Language is a form of communication utilizing the manipulation of symbols to convey meaning. Grammar is the set of rules that determines the structure of the language required for understanding. The basic speech sounds of a language are called phonemes. Phonemes are combined into morphemes, the smallest meaningful units of a language. Syntax is the subset of rules of grammar that governs the order of words in phrases and sentences. The meaning of language is called semantics.
3. Language tends to develop in a regular pattern. Infants begin to cry at birth, vocalize at one month, babble at six months, and speak at one year. During the second year, infants use one-word sentences. At about two years of age, children begin telegraphic speech in which they use two-word sentences. Eventually their sentences become longer and more complex, and their vocabularies become larger.
4. According to the learning theory of language, parents reinforce the behavior when children produce sounds that are recognizable as language, and children try to imitate words and phrases used by parents. According to the biological psycholinguistic theory of language, children are programmed with an internal language acquisition device (LAD). A number of researchers have reported that primates can learn to use language, although others question whether these studies actually demonstrate language learning.
5. Theories of problem solving include trial-and-error learning, insight into the reorganization of the perceptual field, information processing, and connectionism (multiple cognitive processes occurring simultaneously).
6. Most people go through the steps of preparation, production, and evaluation when solving problems. Strategies in problem solving include algorithms and heuristics. Experience is often useful in learning to solve problems but sometimes leads to mental sets, functional fixedness, confirmation bias, or using irrelevant information, which can interfere with problem solving.
7. Since creativity involves coming up with new or unusual responses to familiar circumstances, it is closely related to the ability to solve problems. Creative people tend to be internally motivated, to have freedom to choose their activities, and to live in a stimulating and exciting environment.
8. Intelligence can be defined as the capacity to learn and behave adaptively. Most intelligence tests stress verbal skills, quantitative skills, and problem-solving skills.
9. Spearman's theory of intelligence includes a general factor and specific factors. Thurstone's theory is based on seven primary mental abilities. Guilford's theory includes 150 abilities, arranged in three dimensions: contents, operations, and products. Gardner proposes seven independent kinds of intelligence in his theory of multiple intelligences. Sternberg's triarchic theory consists of three parts: cognitive components of intelligence, experience and intelligence, and context of intelligence.
10. Aptitude tests are designed to predict what can be accomplished in the future with proper training, whereas achievement tests are designed to measure what can be done at the present time. Intelligence tests are usually aptitude tests designed to predict a broad range of mental abilities.
11. The first intelligence test was designed in 1905 by Alfred Binet to identify students in the Paris school system who needed special education. Binet defined mental age as what the typical child of a given chronological age could do. Terman revised Binet's test and in 1916 published the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. Terman used the intelligence quotient, or IQ, to refer to the ratio of mental to chronological age (IQ = MA ö CA x 100).
12. Wechsler published several intelligence scales, including the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III). The WAIS-III measures verbal skills (information, digit span, vocabulary, arithmetic, comprehension, and similarities) and performance skills (picture completion, picture arrangement, block design, object assembly, and digit symbol).
13. Intelligence is determined in part by genetic factors. In general, the closer the genetic relationship between two individuals, the higher the correlation (relationship) between IQs. Identical twins reared together have the highest IQ correlation, and IQs of adoptive children correlate more highly with biological parents than with adoptive parents.
14. Intelligence is significantly influenced by the environment. Identical twins reared apart have lower IQ correlations than those reared together, suggesting that the environment influenced the difference. Studies show that diet, adult interaction, social class, and family size all influence intelligence.
15. Individuals with IQs below 70 and who have adjustment problems are classified as mentally retarded. There are four different levels of retardation: mild, moderate, severe, and profound. Genetic causes of mental retardation include biochemical disorders (such as PKU) and chromosomal disorders (such as Down syndrome). Environmental causes of mental retardation include maternal diet, smoking, infectious diseases during pregnancy, or the child's contracting an infectious disease early in life. 
16. At the upper extreme are intellectually gifted individuals with IQs greater than 130. Studies suggest that gifted individuals are typically healthier, happier, wealthier, and better adjusted than average individuals.
COMPLETION (FILL-IN) EXERCISE
WHAT IS COGNITION?
Define Cognition and Identify the Topics in Cognitive Psychology (Objective 1)
1. The area of psychology that includes the study of mental activities involved in perception, memory, language, thought, intelligence, and problem solving is called ____________ psychology.
cognitive
2. ___________ includes the mental processes involved in perception, memory, communication, thinking, and understanding.
Cognition
LANGUAGE
Define Language and Describe its Structure (Grammar) (Objective 2)
3. Communication utilizing the manipulation of symbols to convey meaning to others or ourselves is called ____________.
language
4. The set of rules that determines the structure in a language is called ____________. It is used to produce and understand innumerable sentences.
grammar
5. Language consists of basic sounds that are called ____________. The <i>m</i> sound in mother or music represents one example. The English language contains about forty different speech sounds.
phonemes
6. Phonemes are combined into ____________, the smallest meaningful units of a language.
morphemes
7. The forty phonemes in the English language can be combined to produce the over 500,000 _____________ in the English language.
words
8. A subset of rules of grammar that have to do with the order of words in a sentence is called ____________.
syntax
9. The study of meaning of language is called ____________.
semantics
10. The sequence of morphemes we hear or see in a sentence is the ____________, and the meaning of a sentence is the deep structure.
surface structure
11. The rules that allow us to take ideas (deep structures) and convert them into meaningful sentences (surface structures) are called transformational ____________.
grammar rules
Outline How Language Develops in Infants and Children (Objective 3)
12. The first stage of language development begins at birth when babies begin to ____________. The second stage begins at about one month, when babies coo and vocalize.
cry
13. The third stage of language development begins at around six months, when babies begin to ____________. The fourth stage begins at about one year, when babies begin a pattern of speech.
babble
14. Using one word to communicate the meaning of a complete sentence is called ____________ speech.
holophrasic
15. The next stage, when children begin to use two-word sentences is called ____________ speech.
telegraphic
Compare the Two Major Theories of Language Development (Objective 4)
16. The theory of language development that suggests parents reinforce children for producing sounds that are recognizable as language is the ____________ theory.
learning
17. Skinner emphasized ____________ in his learning theory of language acquisition. Through the processes of shaping and imitation children learn which sounds and words are useful to them.
reinforcement
18. In the biological psycholinguistic theory, Chomsky believes children are born with an internal ____________, or language acquisition device, that allows them to interpret the adult speech that they hear and to make their own sentences with the correct rules of grammar.
LAD
19. Benjamin Lee Whorf (1956) proposed in his ____________ relativity hypothesis that the perception of reality differs according to the language of the observer.
linguistic
20. In 1969 Beatrix and Allen Gardner reported that they were teaching a chimpanzee named ____________ to communicate using the American Sign Language.
Washoe
21. Premack (1971) taught a ____________ named Sarah to communicate using plastic symbols with a variety of shapes to develop sentences.
chimpanzee
22. Terrace (1979) concluded that although his chimpanzee, Nim, could imitate sign language, he could not acquire the rules of ____________.
grammar
23. Kanzi, a pygmy chimpanzee, has developed the most advanced language abilities in a nonhuman primate by pushing geometric shapes on a keyboard by which it was assumed he was using symbols for concepts. The controversy of animals learning ____________ still continues.
language
PROBLEM SOLVING AND CREATIVITY
Identify Four Theories of Problem Solving (Objective 5)
24. Through ____________ and association of reward with behavior, Thorndike's cats learned to solve the problem of escaping from puzzle boxes.
trial and error
25. A sudden grasping of the means necessary to achieve a goal is called ____________. The Gestalt psychologist Wolfgang K”hler used this approach when he tested chimpanzees.
insight
26. The ____________ processing approach to problem solving makes use of flow charts and computer simulation to show the possible choices at each step in solving a problem.
information
27. The problem solving method of _____ states that the development of neural connections allows us to effectively think and solve prblems.
connectionism
Outline Effective Problem Solving Strategies and Identify Three Variables That Can Interfere With Solving Problems (Objective 6)
28. One theory of problem solving suggests that we go through the steps of preparation, production, and ____________. 
evaluation
29. With an ____________, or random search strategy, every possible solution is tried until the correct one is found.
algorithm
30. A ____________ is a rule-of-thumb problem-solving strategy in which a person selectively tests solutions most likely to be correct.
heuristic
31. When an individual gets better at learning how to solve problems because of previous experience, it is called learning to ____________.
learn
32. When our thinking becomes standardized and we approach new problems in fixed ways, we are developing mental ____________.
sets
33. The tendency to selectively seek information that confirms our hypothesis is called ____________ bias.
confirmation
Define Creativity (Objective 9)
34. A process of coming up with new or unusual responses to familiar circumstances is called ____________.
creativity
35. Guilford argued that coming up with the single correct response is called ____________ thinking, whereas coming up with new and unusual responses is called divergent thinking.
convergent
36. If you were asked to list all the uses of a knife you can think of in one minute, and your response was scored for originality, usefulness, and quantity, you would probably be taking a ____________ test.
creativity
37. The _____ theory suggests that creative people select an area that is undervalued by society and develop it into a meaningful contribution that is recognized by others.
investment
DEFINITION AND THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
Define the Concept of Intelligence (Objective 8)
38. Sternberg found that when describing intelligence, academic experts stress the ability to verbalize, solve problems, and achieve goals, whereas laypersons stress verbal ability, problem-solving ability and ____________ competence.
social
39. One definition of intelligence is the group of skills necessary for success in a culture. The concept is ____________, in that the particular skills necessary for success vary by culture. Verbal and mathematical skills are important in American culture.
culture bound
40. The capacity to learn and behave adaptively is usually the definition of ____________.
intelligence
Outline the Major Theories of Intelligence (Objective 9)
41. The theory of intelligence that includes a general factor "<i>g</i>" that gives a person the ability to achieve success in a wide variety of intellectual tasks, and several specific factors "<i>s</i>" that allow a person to excel on particular tasks, was proposed by ____________ in 1904.
Spearman
42. The theory of intelligence that states that it is determined by seven primary abilities (spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, verbal ability, word fluency, memory and reasoning) was proposed by ____________ in 1938.
Thurstone
43. The theory of intelligence that proposed that there are three separate dimensions interacting in intelligence: (contents--information a person is thinking; operations--actions of a person; and products--the result of thinking about the information) was proposed by ____________ in 1967.
Guilford
44. The theory of multiple intelligences that states that there are seven different kinds of intelligence was developed by _____________.
Gardner
45. Sternberg proposed the ____________ theory of intelligence, which consists of the componential, experiential, and contextual subtheories.
triarchic
MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
Identify the Characteristics of Tests (Objective 10)
46. A test designed to predict what a person can accomplish in the future with proper training is an ____________ test. These might measure music potential, athletic ability, or general intellectual ability.
aptitude
47. A test designed to measure what a person can do in the present is an ____________ test. A final exam in a course that measures how much of the material you have mastered is one example.
achievement
48. Aptitude tests designed to predict a broad range of mental capabilities are ____________ tests. These tests are often used to predict future academic success.
intelligence
Describe the Development of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (Objective 11)
49. Alfred Binet was asked by the French government to devise an intelligence test that would predict which children could most benefit from special education classes. Binet and his colleague, Theodore Simon, published the ____________ Intelligence Scale in 1905.
Binet-Simon
50. Binet believed that reasoning ability increased with age, and tested children of different ages to determine the ability of each age level. This led him to establish the concept of ____________ age, what the typical child of a given chronological age (age counted in actual years) could do.
mental
51. Lewis Terman of Stanford University revised Binet's test and in 1916 published what is known as the ____________ Intelligence Scale. 
Stanford-Binet
52. The fourth edition of the ____________ Intelligence Scale was published in 1986, and now includes fifteen separate tests in four areas: verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning, abstract/visual reasoning, and short-term memory.
Stanford-Binet
Describe the Wechsler Intelligence Scales (Objective 12)
53. Wechsler published the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, or ____________, in 1955. The latest revision, WAIS-III, was published in 1997.
WAIS
54. The WAIS-III is divided into subscales that measure ____________ skills (vocabulary similarities, arithmetic, digit span, information, comprehension, and letter-number sequencing) and performance skills (picture completion, digit symbol, block design, matrix reasoning, picture arrangement, symbol search and object assembly).
verbal
55. Wechsler also developed intelligence measures for children. The 1991 revision of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children, or ____________, is used for ages 6 through 16. The 1989 Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-R) is used for ages 3 through 7.
WISC-III
INFLUENCES ON INTELLIGENCE
Outline the Genetic Influences on Intelligence (Objective 13)
56. Much of the genetic research in humans comes from measuring correlations between IQ and degree of genetic relatedness. In general, the closer the genetic relationship, the higher the ____________ (relationship) between individual IQs.
correlation
57. Researchers Loehlin and Nichols, (1976) discovered a correlation of .86 in IQs of ____________, and .62 in nonidentical. 
identical twins
58. Adoption studies show higher correlations between adopted children and ____________ parents than with adoptive parents.
biological
59. Plomin and his colleagues (1998) identified _____ trait loci, or genes that contribute to high intelligence.
quantitative
60. IQ data reviewed by Plomin and Petrill in 1997 suggest a heritability of around .50. Although it is impossible to accurately predict the determinants of ____________ at the present time, we can conclude that both genetic and environmental influences are important in its determination.
intelligence
Outline the Environmental Influences on Intelligence (Objective 14)
61. One line of research examines differences in IQs of identical twins reared in different environments. Since these twins share identical ____________, any differences found could be attributed to the environment. 
genes
62. Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) have shown that ____________ can be important in influencing intelligence, with students who are expected to do well actually performing the best.
expectancy
THE EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE
List the Levels of Mental Retardation and Identify its Major Causes. (Objective 15)
63. The lower extreme of intelligence, usually when a person scores less than 70 on an IQ test and has problems in adaptive behavior (such as language skills and social competencies), is called mental ____________.
retardation
64. The largest segment (85 percent) of the mentally retarded, which includes individuals with IQs between 50 and 70, is ____________ retardation. These individuals have difficulty with abstract concepts, but are often fairly successful in their family relationships and occupations.
mild
65. The level of retardation that includes individuals with IQs of 36 to 49 is ____________ retardation. These individuals need constant supervision but may work in sheltered workshops.
moderate
66. The level of retardation that includes individuals with IQs of 20 to 35 is ____________ retardation. The lowest level of retardation that includes individuals with IQs below 20 is profound retardation.
severe
67. Factors causing mental retardation can be classified as genetic or environmental. The ____________ causes of mental retardation include biochemical disorders (such as phenylketonuria) and chromosomal disorders (such as Down Syndrome).
genetic
68. An extra chromosome number 21 causes a form of mental retardation known as ____________ Syndrome.
Down
69. The ____________ causes of mental retardation include maternal drug use, smoking, malnutrition, or infectious diseases during pregnancy. After birth, retardation might result from birth complications, poisons, or infectious diseases.
environmental
70. Overall, general genetic factors result in mild mental retardation, while ____________ factors result in more severe mental retardation. For instance, many genes contribute to overall intelligence variations, but a specific gene can cause specific mental retardation, such as phenylketonuria.
specific
Describe Intellectually Gifted People (Objective 16)
71. At the upper extreme of the IQ scale, above 130, are the intellectually ____________ individuals. They are generally found to be superior in health, adjustment, and happiness.
gifted
72. Follow-up studies of the gifted (Goleman, 1980) have shown that overall, they had grown up to be more ____________ adults than the average person.
successful
* COMPLETION (FILL-IN) EXERCISE --- WEB SITE
* Exploring Psychology: Concept Formation
1. The ability to respond to common features of categories of objects or events is _____ formation.
concept
2. Mental categories for objects, events, or ideas that have a common set of features are _____.
concepts
3. Hull's (1920) _____ association theory states that we learn to associate a particular response (the concept) with stimuli that define the concept.
stimulus-response
4. Rosch's (1978) _____ theory proposes that we learn a concept by seeing a variety of examples of it and developing a prototype of the concept.
exemplar
* Exploring Psychology: The Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT)
5. In the 1960s and 1970s the SAT scores _____ significantly.
dropped
* Exploring Psychology: What Makes a Good Intelligence Test?
6. The value of an intelligence test to predict _____ depends on several important factors: validity, reliability, standardization, objectivity, and practicality.
achievement
7. The process of obtaining a norm, or sample of scores representative of the population is called _____.
standardization
* Biography: Alfred Binet
8. In 1904, Alfred Binet was asked to identify students in the Paris school system who needed _____ education because of their low level of intellectual functioning.
special
* Exploring Psychology: Race and Intelligence
9. Until fairly recently, most intelligence tests were standardized for _____, middle-class people.
white
10. Studies have suggested that _____ differences that exist between races are important in IQ determination.
environmental
* Biography: Sandra Wood Scarr
11. Sandra Scarr is well-known for her study of transracially _____ African American children.
adopted
* Exploring Psychology: Education and Learning Disabilities
12. The term _____ refers to any of a variety of learning problems experienced by students when there is adequate teaching and the intellectual capacity of the students is above normal.
learning disability
13. In the academic skills disorder of developmental reading disorder, or _____, the student has difficulty learning to read words adequately.
dyslexia
14. The _____ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by inattention, impulsiveness, and hyperactivity.
attention-deficit
15. In school, ADHD is most characterized by excessive _____ activity.
motor
* Exploring Psychology: Environmental Enrichment Programs
16. The Head Start program is a large-scale preschool for four-year-old children from _____ backgrounds.
disadvantaged
17. Increased attention to the importance of __________ and early environmental enrichment has generally produced a greater number of better students.
nutrition
CONCEPT IDENTIFICATION EXERCISE
* 1. Theories of Language Development
Identify the theory of language development represented by each statement.
A. Parents encourage certain sounds and words from children.
B. Children automatically make grammatically correct sentences.
C. Children won't learn language if they don't learn it during childhood.
D. Children imitate their parents' language.

* 2. Aptitude and Achievement Tests
For each example, indicate whether it is an aptitude or achievement test.
A. SAT
B. psychology final exam
C. intelligence test
D. mathematics test
* 3. Genetic and Environmental Causes of Retardation
For each example, indicate whether it is a genetic or environmental cause of retardation.
A. poor maternal diet
B. Down syndrome
C. infectious disease
D. PKU
* 4. Important People in Language and Intelligence
Identify each person whose contribution to psychology is described.
A. studied insight learning in apes
B. proposed LAD and psycholinguistic theory
C. developed the intelligence test
D. proposed triarchic theory of intelligence
E. proposed linguistic relativity hypothesis
F. developed WAIS-III, WISC-III, WPPSI-R
G. taught the chimpanzee Washoe sign language
ANSWERS TO CONCEPT IDENTIFICATION EXERCISE
1. Theories of Language Development
A. learning theory
B. psycholinguistic theory
C. critical period hypothesis
D. learning theory
2. Aptitude and Achievement Tests
A. aptitude test
B. achievement test
C. aptitude test
D. achievement test
3. Genetic and Environmental Causes of Retardation
A. environmental
B. genetic
C. environment
D. genetic
4. Important People in Language and Intelligence
A. K”hler
B. Chomsky
C. Binet
D. Sternberg
E. Whorf
F. Wechsler
G. Gardner and Gardner
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUIZ 1
1. The problem-solving approach that states that the development of neural connections allows us to effectively think and solve problems is:
a. information processing.
b. trial-and-error.
c. connectionism.
d. neural synapse.
c
2. The theory of language development that emphasizes imitation is the______ theory.
a. learning
b. biological
c. genetic
d. LAD
a
3. The Gardners taught the chimpanzee Washoe how to communicate through:
a. sign language.
b. speech.
c. computers.
d. colors.
a
4. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of creative people?
a. intrinsic motivation
b. independent thinking
c. low intelligence
d. freedom
c
5. J. P. Guilford (1982) suggested that intelligence was determined by:
a. three dimensions producing 150 mental abilities.
b. seven primary mental abilities and 150 characteristics.
c. one general factor.
d. thirty-seven individual characteristics resulting in 317 factors.
a
6. A final exam is to _____ test as the ACT is to _____ test.
a. achievement; aptitude
b. intelligence; achievement
c. aptitude; achievement
d. aptitude; intelligence
a
7. The intelligence test developed by Wechsler for very young children is the:
a. WAIS.
b. WISC.
c. WPPSI.
d. SBIS.
c
8. Tina is twelve years old and performs on the level of a thirteen year old. Her mental age is:
a. 108.
b. 100.
c. 13.
d. 92.
c
9. If Karen says "juice" to mean "I would like some juice to drink", she is using:
a. surface structure speech.
b. deep structure speech.
c. holophrasic speech.
d. telegraphic speech.
c
10. Individuals who are educable but mentally retarded are likely to be at which level of retardation?
a. moderate
b. mild
c. profound
d. severe
b
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUIZ 2
1. The ______ approach to problem solving includes the steps of preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification.
a. computer information
b. insight
c. trial and error
d. learning
b
2. Pam is about six months old. She most likely is in the stage of language in which she:
a. cries.
b. vocalizes.
c. babbles.
d. speaks.
c
3. It is difficult to solve the "nine-dot" problem because of the development of:
a. mental sets.
b. algorithms.
c. heuristics.
d. evaluations.
a
4. The test you are now taking is a(n) _______ test.
a. aptitude
b. personality
c. intellectual
d. achievement
d
5. When talking with someone, the ideas you want to communicate make up the _______ structure of the sentences.
a. shallow
b. grammatical
c. deep
d. speech
c
6. Skinner argues that parents use ____________ in teaching language to children.
a. punishment and biology
b. imitation and torture
c. maturation
d. shaping and reinforcement
d
7. The _____ is an adult intelligence test that is divided into fourteen subscales that measure verbal skills and performance skills.
a. Stanford-Binet
b. WAIS-III
c. Person-Tree-House
d. WPPSI-R
b
8. The "m" sound is to _____ as the word "swim" is to _____.
a. phoneme; morpheme
b. morpheme; phoneme
c. syntax; grammar
d. surface structure; deep structure
a
9. Lewis Terman of Stanford University revised Binet's intelligence test and in 1916 published what is known as the:
a. Terman-Binet Intelligence Test.
b. Simon-Binet Intelligence Scale.
c. Terman-Stanford Intelligence Scale.
d. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale.
d
10. Goleman (1980), in a follow-up study of Terman's gifted children, found that as adults, they were all of the following EXCEPT:
a. healthy.
b. happy.
c. wealthy.
d. mentally disturbed.
d
CHALLENGE QUESTIONS
After you have mastered the basic concepts from this chapter, you might want to try some of these challenge activities, designed to help you better understand and apply what you have learned to your daily life. 
IDENTIFICATION 
1. What are the steps involved in problem solving, and what prevents success in solving problems?
2. Define intelligence and describe the two major tests used to test adult intelligence.
3. Identify the genetic and environmental influences on intelligence.
APPLICATION
4. Arrange to observe children at one, two, three, or four years of age, and note the language development that occurs. Why are there such large variations in language ability in children?
5. Ask your friends to solve the nine-dot problem (Scheerer, 1963) and as they work on it (individually), record the approach they take. Is it trial and error, or do they eventually develop insight into the proper solution? Do you notice any trends in successful problem solvers versus unsuccessful ones?
6. Develop your own theory of intelligence, incorporating what you have learned in this chapter. What is important in measuring intelligence? Identify the important elements in the concept of intelligence. How are genetic and environmental influences involved? To which of the major theories is yours most similar?
7. Devise a test of intelligence based on your intelligence theory. Make a list of about five or six questions or tasks. Then ask several of your friends to try it out. What was their reaction? Did they understand your goals? How could you tell if your test was valid, reliable, standardized, and objective? (Be sure you do not embarrass anyone.)
EVALUATION
8. Evaluate the theories of language development, and explain which you think is the most relevant.
9. Which theory of problem solving do you use most frequently? Which theory do you think other people use most frequently? Why?
10. Why is there currently no way to accurately measure the precise influence of heredity and environment on intelligence? Will we be able to determine a percentage in the future?
SUGGESTED READINGS FOR STUDENTS
Anastasi, A., & Urbina, S. (1997). <i>Psychological testing</i> (7th ed.). New York: Macmillan. A difficult textbook, but a classic that sets the standard in testing today.
Anderson, J. R. (1995). <i>Cognitive psychology and its implications</i> (4th ed.). New York: Freeman. A very good textbook that introduces the areas of cognition.
Bransford, J., & Stein, B. (1984). <i>The IDEAL problem solver: A guide for improving thinking, learning, and creativity.</i> New York: Freeman. A fascinating and fun paperback book with lots of exercises.
Gardner, H. (1983). <i>Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences.</i> New York: Basic Books. A readable paperback that clearly explains the theory of multiple intelligences.
Holt, J. (1964). <i>How children fail.</i> New York: Dell. A very readable paperback that discusses intelligence and education.
Mayer, R. E. (1983). <i>Thinking, problem solving, and cognition.</i> New York: Freeman. A good survey of thinking and problem solving.
Miller, G. (1981). <i>Language and speech.</i> San Francisco: Freeman. Readable introduction to language by an important psychologist.
Robinson, N., & Robinson, H. (1976). <i>The mentally retarded child</i> (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. A good overview of mental retardation.
Scarr, S. (1982). <i>Race, social class, and individual differences in IQ.</i> Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. An advanced examination of heredity and intelligence.
Sternberg, R. J. (1985). <i>Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of human intelligence.</i> A sophisticated yet understandable survey of intelligence, plus the author's own theory.
Walsh, W. B., & Betz, N. E. (1990). <i>Tests and assessment</i> (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. A very good textbook on testing.
Weisberg, R. (1986). <i>Creativity: Genius and other myths.</i> New York: Freeman. A great review of the area of creativity and intelligence.