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WHAT IS MEMORY? Define Memory (Objective 1) Outline the Memory Processes of Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval (Objective 2) MEMORY PROCESSES Describe the Iconic and Echoic Sensory Memory Stores (Objective 3) Identify the Variables That Influence Encoding in Short-Term Memory (Objective 4) Describe the Characteristics of Short-Term Memory (Objective 5) STAGES OF MEMORY STORAGE Compare Maintenance and Elaborative Rehearsal (Objective 6) Compare the Three Types of Long-Term Memory (Objective 7) Identify the variables in retrieval of long-term memory (Objective 8). Identify Three Procedures Used in Verbal Learning and Memory (Objective 9) Identify Three Measures of Memory Retention (Objective 10) Compare the Three Theories of Forgetting (Objective 11) IMPROVEMENT OF MEMORY Identify Five Techniques for Memory Improvement (Objective 12) BIOLOGY OF MEMORY Describe the Biological Basis of Memory (Objective 13) WEB SITE

WHAT IS MEMORY?
Define Memory (Objective 1)
1.	The process of storing the information we learn so that it can be retrieved and used later is called memory.
2.	Retention loss, or forgetting, is the part of the original learning that cannot be retrieved.
MEMORY PROCESSES
Outline the Memory Processes of Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval (Objective 2)
3.	The process of putting information into our memory system is encoding. Variables include perception of the event, attention to its characteristics, motivation to remember, and meaningfulness of the information.
4.	The process that retains information in the memory system for some length of time is called storage.
5.	The third step in the memory process is retrieval, pulling information out of the memory system.
STAGES OF MEMORY STORAGE
Describe the Iconic and Echoic Sensory Memory Stores (Objective 3)
6.	Currently, memory theories are dominated by the information - processing theory of memory.
7.	The very brief memory store that sensory information first enters in the memory system is called sensory memory. It refers to the very brief time (less than 1 second) that the stimulus trace exists.
8.	The information in sensory memory is a fairly accurate representation of the environmental stimuli but is unprocessed. It has a large capacity but maintains memory for a very brief time.
9.	Visual sensory memory, the brief persistence of visual stimuli, is referred to as iconic memory.
10.	Sperling (1960) found subjects could remember 4.3 items out of 12 when presented at once, a whole report, but if he asked them to recall a particular row, subjects had a memory of 9.1 out of 12 items, a partial report. Waiting 1 second made the subject's memory of these items drop to 4.6 items.
11.	The brief persistence of auditory stimuli after the sound itself has ended is called echoic memory. Darwin, Turvey, and Crowder found that this memory lasted only a couple of seconds before it decayed.
12.	The process of focusing on certain stimuli in sensory memory so they can be processed further is called attention.
Identify the Variables That Influence Encoding in Short-Term Memory (Objective 4)
13.	After we pay attention to sensory information and analyze it through pattern recognition, we are able to transfer it into our short-term memory, where we hold the information we are aware of at any one point in time.
14.	In Baddeley's model of working memory, the phonological loop is responsible for auditory and speech-based information.
15.	In Baddeley's model of working memory, the visuo-spatial sketch pad is responsible for visual images.
16.	Many stimuli bombard our senses and we must use selective attention to screen out irrelevant information while focusing on significant stimuli.
17.	The information value of material to be encoded is referred to as meaningfulness.
18.	The encoding process of combining stimuli in order to increase memory capacity is called chunking.
Describe the Characteristics of Short-Term Memory (Objective 5)
19.	We are most likely to use an acoustic code in short-term memory, storing information in terms of how it sounds.
20.	The capacity of short-term memory is approximately seven chunks of information.
21.	The digit -span test is used to test memory of numbers in short-term memory.
22.	Sternberg (1966) found that time to scan information in short- term memory increased as the number of items increased, suggesting people use exhaustive serial processing to search short-term memory.
23.	Peterson and Peterson (1959) found that a nonsense syllable was forgotten in less than 30 seconds if subjects were prevented from rehearsing it.
Compare Maintenance and Elaborative Rehearsal (Objective 6)
24.	You can extend the time that information is held in short-term memory by repeating it, a process called rehearsal.
25.	Repeating information over and over without thinking about it is called maintenance rehearsal. Theoretically, it is possible to keep information indefinitely in short-term memory this way.
26.	Thinking about the meaning of the information to be reviewed and trying to form associations with information already in memory is called elaborative rehearsal. This is effective in helping get information into long-term memory.
Compare the Three Types of Long-Term Memory (Objective 7)
27.	Through elaborative rehearsal, we are able to place information from short-term memory into the permanent memory store, called long-term memory.
28.	The level at which material is processed in memory is called depth of processing. High-meaningful material is processed more deeply than low-meaningful material.
29.	Hyde and Jenkins (1969) found that subjects who rated pleasantness of words ( deep processing), remembered them better than subjects who checked to see if words contained the letter e (shallow processing).
30.	Tulving (1985) distinguished among three types of long-term memory: procedural memory, semantic memory, and episodic memory.
31.	The most basic type of memory that involves the formation of associations between stimuli and responses is procedural memory.
32.	Memory of knowledge that is used in everyday experience, such as facts and figures, is called semantic memory.
33.	Memory that involves a personal event in a person's life is called episodic memory, or autobiographical memory. This memory is the highest memory system.
34.	Occasionally an event is so major in importance that it leaves a vivid impression in episodic memory and more details than usual can be retrieved. This type of memory is called flashbulb memory.
Identify the variables in retrieval of long-term memory (Objective 8).
35.	episodic memory is more difficult to retrieve than semantic memory. Whitten and Leonard (1981) found that the best way to remember personal events is to start with the most recent experience and work backwards.
36.	The finding that the closer you come to recalling a name or word, the more accurately you can remember the number of syllables or some of the letters is called the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.
37.	Organization of information in long-term memory significantly increases the success of retrieval. When there is no external organization, we tend to produce our own subjective organizational scheme.
38.	An application of reconstructive memory is eyewitness memory. Loftus pointed out that during an interview, inaccurate information could be given to a witness, thereby causing the witness to reconstruct an unreliable account of the incident.
39.	Memories that we believe to be real, but never actually occurred are called false memories.
40.	The knowledge of one's own memory ability is called metamemory.
41.	Metamemory is concerned with how accurately people can predict how difficult a memory task is for them.
42.	Research suggests that people in cultures rich in oral tradition remember story themes better than people in other cultures.
Identify Three Procedures Used in Verbal Learning and Memory (Objective 9)
43.	The scientific study of remembering verbal materials began with the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus. Ebbinghaus used three-letter combination units that were assumed to have no meaning for the learner, called nonsense syllables, or trigrams.
44.	The verbal learning procedure in which the stimuli are always presented in the same order, and the subject has to learn them in the order in which they are presented, is called serial learning.
45.	Ebbinghaus found that people remember words at the beginning (primacy effect) and the end (recency effect) of a list better than those in the middle, which is called the serial position effect.
46.	The verbal learning procedure in which the order of presentation of the stimuli is varied on each trial, and the subject can learn the items in any order, is called free recall.
47.	The verbal learning procedure in which the subject is presented with a series of pairs of items that must be remembered, is called paired-associate learning. Mary Calkins first developed this procedure.
Identify Three Measures of Memory Retention (Objective 10)
48.	The process of pulling information out of our memory storage system is called retrieval.
49.	The measure of retrieval in which the subject is required to retrieve learned information from memory is recall, or reconstruction. An example is an essay test.
50.	The measure of retrieval in which the subject is required to identify items that were previously learned is recognition. An example of this is a multiple-choice test.
51.	The measure of retrieval in which the subject first learns a task and then is required to relearn it at a later time is relearning, or savings.
Compare the Three Theories of Forgetting (Objective 11)
52.	The theory of forgetting in which sensory impressions leave memory traces that fade away due to disuse or time is called the decay theory of memory. It primarily affects short-term memory, where information fades within 30 seconds if it is not rehearsed.
53.	Once information is properly encoded and stored in long-term memory, it is fairly permanent. Interference caused by information learned earlier than the material of interest is called proactive interference.
54.	Interference caused by information learned after the material of interest is called retroactive interference.
55.	The theory proposed by Freud that people forget because they want to avoid thinking about unpleasant events is called motivated forgetting, or repression.
IMPROVEMENT OF MEMORY
Identify Five Techniques for Memory Improvement (Objective 12)
56.	The generally most effective method of learning, in which material is learned over an extended period of time with breaks between sessions, is called distributed practice.
57.	The memory improvement technique of continuing to rehearse information after the initial learning has been accomplished is called overlearning.
58.	The technique of repeating learned information from memory is called active recitation.
59.	There are several important variables involved in encoding, including chunking, selective attention, and depth of processing.
60.	Methods for improving memory by encoding and organizing information are called mnemonic techniques. One example is to combine items to be remembered into words or phrases.
61.	A mnemonic that utilizes imagery is the pegword technique that starts with a rhyme or series in which the key words serve as hooks to associate with other items to be remembered.
62.	The mnemonic technique in which a series of familiar locations (such as rooms in a house, or places in a room) are associated with items to be remembered is the method of loci.
63.	Park and colleagues (1990) found that the technique used most often by memory research psychologists for remembering was to write things in lists and notes.
64.	The finding that we remember best when we are in the same state of consciousness as we were when we originally learned the material, is called state-dependent learning.
65.	A good technique for improving learning and memory is the SQ5R study technique. This involves survey, question, read, record, recite, review and reflect.
BIOLOGY OF MEMORY
Describe the Biological Basis of Memory (Objective 13)
66.	Lashley (1950) attempted to identify the physical memory trace or neural circuit that holds memory, called the engram . Lashley concluded that memory depends on total brain size and not a specific location.
67.	Hebb (1949) proposed the biological theory of memory called consolidation, which is the neural process of making memories permanent. It is possible that short-term memory is electrically coded, while long-term memory is chemically coded.
68.	The cerebellum appears to play an important role in procedural memory, whereas the hippocampus and thalamus are involved in the development of semantic and episodic memory.
69.	Studies that implicate epinephrine, acetylcholine, glutamate, and serotonin in memory focus on the neurochemistry of memory.
70.	A disorder in which an individual loses all memory is Alzheimer's disease. Some research suggests that a deficiency of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine may be involved.
WEB SITE
*Exploring Psychology: Retrieval in Short-Term Memory
1.	Saul Sternberg concluded that people perform an exhaustive serial search when retrieving information from their short-term memory.
*Biography: Endel Tulving
2.	Endel Tulving spent most of his academic career at the University of Toronto.
*Biography: Elizabeth F. Loftus
3.	Elizabeth Loftus earned her Ph.D. in psychology from Stanford University in 1970.
4.	Loftus is well-known for her research in eyewitness memory.
*Exploring Psychology: Culture and Memory
5.	Ross and Millson reported that students in Ghana (a culture rich in oral tradition) remembered story themes better than students in the United States.
6.	Many activities in school stress memorization and teach students how to organize information to improve memory.
*Biography: Hermann Ebbinghaus
7.	Ebbinghaus published his most important book, On Memory, in 1885.
*Biography: Mary Whiton Calkins
8.	Mary Calkins taught at Wellesley College, where she set up a psychological research laboratory to study memory.
*Exploring Psychology: Improving Your Memory
9.	You need to increase attention in order to focus on the information you want to remember.
10.	The key to organizing your memory is to associate new information with information already in your memory system.
*Exploring Psychology: Context and Memory
11.	The finding that we remember best when we are in the same state of consciousness that we were in when we originally learned the material is called state-dependent learning.
*Exploring Psychology: SQ5R Study Technique
12.	The SQ5R memory technique includes the steps of survey, question, read, record, recite, review, and reflect.
13.	It is important to actively read the material paragraph by paragraph.
14.	After reading a paragraph, you should record the main ideas by underlining key words or writing in the margin or writing a summary.
15.	The last step in SQ5R is to reflect on the ideas you have learned. Take time to organize the information and develop associations with your existing knowledge.
*Exploring Psychology: Alzheimer's Disease
16.	Alzheimer's disease is a degenerative disorder of the brain that results in irreversible memory loss.
17.	It appears that a decrease in the neurotransmitter acetylcholine plays a role in Alzheimer's.
18.	When hospital patients with Alzheimer's were encouraged to maintain their self- identity, they were able to function for a longer time.

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