WHAT IS LEARNING? Define learning (Objective 1) 1. The relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral ability of an individual that occurs as a result of experience is called learning 2. The fact that the individual's behavior is modified and continues to remain different is why we say learning is relatively permanent 3. Learning results from behavioral experience CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Identify the Types of Stimuli and Responses Involved in Classical Conditioning (Objective 2) 4. Ivan Pavlov taught dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell which was initially followed by food. Pavlov called this form of learning classical 5. In classical conditioning, any stimulus that provokes an automatic or reflexive reaction in an individual is an unconditioned 6. The particular response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus is the unconditioned 7. If the US is repeatedly presented following a neutral stimulus, the neutral stimulus alone will become sufficient to elicit the response and is now called the conditioned 8. The learned response to the conditioned stimulus is the conditioned Outline the Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning (Learning Objective 3) 9. In Pavlov's experiment, the bell is the CS, the meat is the US, the response to the meat is the UR, and the response to the bell after conditioning is the CR 10. Watson and Rayner (1920) taught Little Albert to fear a white rat by pairing the rat with a loud, unpleasant noise. The loud noise in this study was the US 11. It has been found that efficient acquisition of classical conditioning takes place when the CS precedes the US by a very brief time period, called the interstimulus 12. The presentation of the CS precedes the onset of the US and the termination of the CS is delayed until the US is presented in delayed 13. The CS is a discrete event that is presented and terminated before the US is presented in trace 14. The CS and the US are presented at exactly the same time in simultaneous 15. The US is presented and terminated before the presentation of the CS in backwards 16. When the conditioned stimulus is presented by itself, after a while the conditioned response declines until it is nonexistent, in a process called extinction 17. If the subject is given a rest during extinction, the CR will occur again briefly due to spontaneous 18. Once a conditioned stimulus becomes effective, other similar stimuli also can elicit the conditioned response, a process called stimulus generalization 19. The subject learns to respond only to a particular stimulus that is paired with the US in stimulus discrimination 20. If a neutral stimulus is presented consistently before a CS, the neutral stimulus alone might come to elicit the CR, in a process called higher Describe How Taste Aversions Might Be Acquired through Classical Conditioning (Learning Objective 4) 21. When an individual experiences stomach distress after having eaten something, conditioned taste aversion 22. John Garcia gave rats sweetened water and then produced gastrointestinal distress by exposing them to radiation. A few days later, the rats refused to drink sweetened water. The X ray (US) that caused the stomach distress (UR) had been associated with the sweetened water (CS), so the water became associated with illness ( CR 23. Conditioned taste aversion, or bait shyness, is a unique form of classical conditioning because the interstimulus interval can be hours 24. In a study of coyote predation control, the researchers took sheep meat (CS) and sprinkled it with a chemical (US) that would produce a stomachache (UR) when the coyotes ate the treated meat. After eating the treated meat, the coyotes avoided OPERANT CONDITIONING State Thorndike's Law of Effect (Learning Objective 5) 25. The cats in Thorndike's puzzle box used trial and error learning when they escaped. Thorndike called this form of learning instrumental 26. Thorndike found that any response that produces satisfaction in a given situation becomes associated with that situation. When that situation occurs again, the response is more likely to be repeated. This is called Thorndike's law of effect Define Shaping and Describe an Example (Learning Objective 6) 27. The gradual process of reinforcing successive behavior approximations toward some goal is called shaping 28. In each step of shaping, reinforcement Outline the Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning (Learning Objective 7) 29. Shaping is an effective method to acquire or learn a behavior through operant conditioning. But we also find through trial and error learning, what causes reinforcement 30. A chamber developed by B. F. Skinner which has a lever that when pressed, results in reinforcement for a subject, is called a Skinner 31. In operant conditioning, the withholding of reinforcement with the subsequent effect of the behavior decreasing in frequency is defined as extinction 32. Just as in classical conditioning, if the subject is given a rest during extinction, he or she will respond with the conditioned response again briefly due to spontaneous 33. Responding to stimuli that are similar to ones that have led to reinforcement in the past is stimulus generalization 34. When the subject is reinforced for responding to particular stimuli only, the process is called stimulusdiscrimination Define Reinforcement and Describe the Major Schedules of Reinforcement (Learning Objective 8) 35. Any event that increases the probability that the behavior that precedes it will be repeated is defined asreinforcement 36. The principle that states that of any two responses, the one that is more likely to occur can be used to reinforce the response that is less likely to occur is called the Premack 37. In continuous 38. In partial 39. The fact that partial reinforcement produces a response that takes longer to extinguish than continuous reinforcement is called the partial reinforcement extinction 40. The subject must make a certain number of responses before reinforcement is given in the fixed 41. In the variable 42. The subject receives reinforcement for the first response after a time interval in the fixed 43. In the variable Contrast and Give Examples of the Different Types of Reinforcement (Primary and Secondary Reinforcement, and Positive and Negative Reinforcement) (Learning Objective 9) 44. Reinforcement that is effective without having been associated with other reinforcers is primary 45.
Reinforcement that is effective only after it has been associated with a primary reinforcer is secondary 46. Reinforcement, which when presented strengthens the response it follows, is called positive 47. Reinforcement, which when removed strengthens the response it follows, is called negative 48. Positive reinforcement might be thought of as presenting something pleasant, whereas negative reinforcement is removing something unpleasant. The key point is that reinforcement increases Describe the Procedures of Aversive Conditioning: Escape Conditioning and Avoidance Conditioning (Learning Objective 10) 49. A subject is presented with an aversive stimulus from which he or she must learn to escape in escape 50. A subject learns to avoid an unpleasant stimulus by responding appropriately before it begins in avoidance Define Punishment and List the Variables that Contribute to its Effectiveness (Learning Objective 11) 51. punishment 52. Punishment can consist of presenting something unpleasant (positive punishment) or removing 53. Reinforcement and punishment are defined by their consequences. If the behavior increases, it is reinforcement, and if the behavior decreases, it is punishment 54. The application of operant conditioning techniques to change behavior, as used in child rearing, school systems, mental institutions, and animal training, is called behavior modification 55. When individuals are given tokens when they perform a desired behavior, they are in a behavior modification program called a token economy 56. The technique of presenting educational material in a series of small steps with student feedback and reinforcement is called programmed 57. Classical and operant conditioning 58. One difference between operant and classical conditioning is that much of operant conditioning is based on voluntary behavior, whereas classical COGNITIVE LEARNING Describe the Major Forms of Cognitive Learning (Latent Learning and Observational Learning) (Learning Objective 12) 59. Learning in which the person utilizes cognitive structures in memory to make decisions about behavior is called cognitive 60. Learning that occurs when an individual acquires knowledge of something but does not show it until motivated to do so is called latent 61. Tolman found that rats who were run through a maze for 10 days without receiving reinforcement and who finally received reinforcement 62. Tolman suggested that rats who were run in a maze developed a cognitive map 63. According to social learning theory, people learn by observing 64. Bandura stated that for observational BIOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS ON LEARNING Outline the biological constraints on learning (instinctive drift, imprinting, and the continuum of preparedness in learning). (Learning Objective 13) 65. There are biological constraints on what can be efficiently learned. The process in which learned behavior moves toward more innate patterns is called instinctive 66. The tendency in just hatched birds to follow a moving object is called imprinting 67. Seligman proposed that animals are prepared to associate certain stimuli and responses, but unprepared to learn other associations. This is called the continuum of preparedness 68. In the continuum of preparedness, conditioned taste aversion, in which the association is formed after one trial, is an example of prepared 69. In the continuum of preparedness, a person learning to spell a word after a number of trials, is an example of unprepared 70. In the continuum of preparedness, trying unsuccessfully to teach a dog to yawn for food in numerous trials, is an example of contraprepared WEB SITE *Biography: Ivan P. Pavlov 1. Ivan Pavlov won a Nobel Prize in 1904 for his research on the physiology of digestion *Exploring Psychology: Temporal Relationship of Stimuli in Classical Conditioning 2. Of the classical conditioning procedures, the forward delayed 3. In delayed 4. In trace 5. In simultaneous *Exploring Psychology: Applications of Classical Conditioning 6. Mowrer and Mowrer (1938) developed a treatment for bedwetting 7. Gustavson and Gustavson (1985) used classical conditioning to condition coyotes to eat sheep *Biography: Edward Lee Thorndike 8. Edward Thorndike studied learning in cats *Exploring Psychology: Educational Psychology 9. The field of educational psychology focuses both on how students learn 10. Instructors should develop a set of learning objectives *Biography: B. F. Skinner 11. Skinner's 1948 novel Walden Two is an account of a utopian 12. Much of Skinner's work involved the study of how reinforcement *Exploring Psychology: Programmed Learning 13. Personalized System of Instruction is a self-paced instruction 14. Computer assisted instruction is effective in part because of the availability of immediate feedback *Exploring Psychology: Reinforcement 15. Any event that increases the probability that the behavior that precedes it will be repeated is reinforcement *Exploring Psychology: Applications of Operant Conditioning 16. The application of operant conditioning techniques to change behavior is called behavior modification 17. In the token *Exploring Psychology: Comparison of Classical and Operant Conditioning 18. Although a basic feature of operant conditioning is reinforcement, classical conditioning relies more on association 19. Much of operant conditioning is based on voluntary behavior, while classical conditioning often involves involuntary *Exploring Psychology: Learning Styles 20. The individual's preferred approach to learning, based on his or her unique background and ability, is called learning style 21. Individuals with an analytical *Exploring Psychology: Imprinting 22. Lorenz found that susceptibility to imprinting was confined to a limited period in the bird's life, the critical
